Researcher Francis Dwyer (2003) reports in this article on a review of literature focusing on distance learning, and how the various media currently being used meet the needs of distance-learning students in the area of text design. This is not a specific study, but rather a study of studies that the author uses to compare against his own work from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The author uses newer studies to compare against his own work of decades ago, when the concept of "distance learning" equated to correspondence courses from non-accredited schools of questionable academic merit. All of the author's research from that period centered on on-ground education on a college campus.
In the ensuing years between Dwyer's (2003) early research and his current efforts, qualitative research methods have come to be seen as being "respectable" and as representative of "real" science. During the 1960s and 1970s, that was not the case. Research of any kind was required to be replicatable and generalizable in order to be seen as being valid, and of course that is not possible in education research. If the same or other researchers use a different study population, then the collection of individuals comprising that population will be different from those of the original study. Results may be similar, but they may be very different, too. Using the same study population could be an option, depending on the type of study that the researcher wishes to complete, but using the same study population could skew results because the sample population already has been exposed to the data collection instruments used in the study the researcher wishes to replicate
Though Dwyer (2003) himself does not present any theory on which to base his findings, the list of shortcomings of other research he develops reflects the sometimes-painful evolution of educational research from quantitative to qualitative in nature and approach. Complaints he has with these other research efforts include deficiencies in design, execution and control. Specific complaints about these other efforts include:
The above list reveals that most of the items gaining Dwyer's (2003) attention can be attributed to the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods. Even so, he does raise some extremely valid points. As example, test reliability needs to be established in serious research of any approach (Trochim, 2004).
Dwyer (2003) found that the studies included in his assessment, though they had design and execution problems in that they were not of the quantitative approach preferred by the author, arrive at several points of agreement useful in designing distance education materials and content. One of those points is that "general visualization is an important instructional variable for facilitating student achievement" (Dwyer, 2003; p. 11), though not without qualification. Dwyer (2003) concludes that "global recommendations for using visualization to facilitate achievement is not a valid recommendation unless it is for a specific type of visual and learning objective" (p. 11).
This article is useful in that it focuses on text design and the use of visualization efforts, factors that can be common to both on-ground and virtual classrooms. It can be seen as confirming the practices of the established online programs that are nearly all text-based without visualization benefits.
Of course there has been extensive research over the years regarding how children and adults learn, informing evolution of various learning theories. In recent years, much of that attention has turned toward various forms of technology and how it may affect and enhance learning. One situation that has received a great deal of attention and various approaches to attempts to understand connections is that of the interaction of physical systems and how the senses work together to enhance learning. It has been recognized for decades that some learners are auditory learners, others are visual learners and still others do best with a combination of auditory and visual cues. Still others are "kinetic" learners who learn best when they can be up and moving around, or learning through hands-on experiences. These are least suited to the online environment, of course, but the vast majority of individuals learn best through auditory or visual means, or a combination of those two.
In an effort to assess how learners can best use the electronic environment to enhance learning, Mayer, Moreno, Boire and Vagge (1999) had students view "an animation depicting either the process of lightning formation or how car brakes work" (p. 638) while listening to a narration of what they were seeing on a screen. These researchers concluded that "learners are more likely to construct connections between words and corresponding pictures when they are held in working memory at the same time" (Mayer, Moreno, Boire and Vagge, 1999; p. 638).
Moreno and Mayer (2000a) used a framework of a cognitive theory of multimedia learning to assess what might constitute improvement of a multimedia instructional message, to test a "recommendation that adding bells and whistles (in the form of background music and/or sounds) would improve the quality of a multimedia instructional message" (p. 117), which used the same lightning and braking system information used in previous studies. Moreno and Mayer (2000a) found that "groups receiving music performed worse than groups not receiving music; and groups receiving sounds performed worse" (p. 117) to conclude that results "were consistent with the idea that auditory adjuncts can overload the learner's auditory working memory" (Moreno and Mayer, 2000a; p. 117).
Prior to this study, the same researchers sought to discover whether "personalized messages in a multimedia science lesson can promote deep learning" (Moreno and Mayer, 2000; p. 724). Personalization almost always carries observable benefits, and Moreno and Mayer (2000) found that personalized "rather than neutral messages produced better problem-solving transfer performance across all experiments and better retention performance on the computer game" (p. 724).
Chou (2004) has complaints about research into distance education settings, but hers focuses on the apparent abandonment of the basics, including the lack of appropriate theory as a framework in which to develop online courses. Chou (2004) doggedly clings to theory at a time that others appear to be abandoning it. Chou (2004) appears to reach a defining point that could evolve into a standard in distance education in noting that current
interaction research has focused mostly on the quantitative results of inter-connected messages in computer-mediated communication (CMC) conferences. Contributing factors to interaction such as theoretical principles of course design and learning contexts are largely ignored (p. 11).
The greatest problem with this situation, according to Chou (2004) is that while "various virtual learning environments and course management systems are being introduced to the distance learning community, it is easy to loose sight of the pedagogical application of the learning systems" (p. 11). Too often, teachers are required to develop their own courses for adaptation to the electronic environment and are required to focus most of their attention on learning the technological facts of the environment they are entering. Chou (2004) compares this situation to that of a "novice pilot being rushed to drive a commercial airplane without going through appropriate training by way of flight simulation" (Chou, 2004; p. 11).
Chou (2004) asserts that more research on how electronic systems "enhance student learning and examples of best practices on instructional design in various disciplines" (p. 11) is needed to ensure the success of online learning for students.
As one complaining about other researchers' dismissal of theory, Chou (2004) is careful to identify and discuss two broad theories she believes provide in combination a solid framework for her study. These two theoretical "principles are constructivism and learner-centered principles (LCPs)" (Chou, 2004; p. 11). In the online environment, "knowledge is coconstructed with peers or experts and through the immersion in a social context" (Chou, 2004; p. 11). LCPs were developed by the American Psychological Association in 1997 "as a framework for the new educational approaches that stress the integration of the needs, skills, interests, and backgrounds of the students in the curriculum planning" (Chou, 2004; p. 11).
LCPs consist of "cognitive and metacognitive factors, motivational and affective factors, developmental and social factors, and individual differences" (Chou, 2004; p. 11). Chou (2004) states that the most effective online course must contain all. Then, "four constructivist attributes for building learning systems are context, construction, collaboration, and conversation" (Chou, 2004; p. 11). Combining the theoretical principles of constructivism and LCPs does appear to provide an effective framework.
Chou's (2004) survey of online students discovers student attitudes and perceptions relative to technology use and capabilities; synchronous versus asynchronous discussion; conference moderation; and small group collaboration. Comparing these findings with APA-identified learner characteristics, Chou (2004) concludes that both constructivism and LCPs must be acknowledged in the course planning stage and that both contribute positive factors to students' online learning experiences, a conclusion of obvious value to distance learning.
Woods and Ebersole (2003) sought to determine which online discussion folders not related directly to course subject matter would be most often used by currently enrolled students. The overall aim of the research was to determine what tools are best able to build a sense of community in the online environment. The researchers found that "a more positive faculty-student relationship" (Woods and Ebersole, 2003; p. 99) and a greater sense of community increased with increased use of non-subject matter class discussion folders.
The individuals comprising the learner group may bring a wide variety of backgrounds, ethnicity, cultural differences and experiences to the program. They also may be present in a rather wide range of ages, which can be expected to be begin at 18 and extend throughout the years of adult maturity, giving any program the need to address at least two developmental stages. Bastable (1997) notes that adult learners differ from children in that they have experience to draw from and can build on that past experience in learning new facts and techniques. "They see learning as relevant when they can apply new knowledge to help them solve immediate problems" (Bastable, 1997; p. 67).
Education seems to provide one of today's most dynamic approaches to the systematic collection of knowledge in an environment in which that knowledge is collected with the goal of informing and changing current practice. The primary position of empirical research is that it has value if it only contributes to the existing knowledge base. Education is one of the disciplines most open to examining such evidence and altering practice according to the findings of well-designed and well-executed research.
Most of the research being conducted in education is geared toward increasing achievement in public schools, of course, and do not target the adult learner. Even so, much of the information gained from this systematic collection of knowledge can be applied to adult populations to be beneficial for them as well.
Choice of teaching strategies is dependent on the age and stage of development of the learner. Both young adulthood and middle-aged adulthood (Bastable, 1997) age groups are likely to be represented in either general-interest or specialized courses. Both groups can be said to be in the "formal operations" cognitive stage, but their psychosocial stages differ. Young adults are in the "intimacy vs. isolation" psychosocial stage, while the middle aged group is in the "Generativity vs. self-absorption and stagnation" (Bastable, 1997; p. 90) psychosocial stage.
Teaching to both these groups will involve including strategies common to each. Teaching should be focused on a problem; draw on specific experience; add to knowledge already present; and allow practical, hands-on practice (Bastable, 1997).
These cautions and descriptions of learner types provided by Bastable (1997) provide the framework in which selection of teaching strategies should be made. Many programs are focused on a specific problem, and most will draw on the experience that the learners already possess. The program should add to the knowledge that the learners already possess, imparting value both to the learners and the organization - whether corporate or academic - providing the learning experiences. Finally, the program should allow the practical use of the information presented that brings theory and lecture into reality that learners can assimilate as their own knowledge. The combination of approaches and teaching strategies is designed to bring abstract concepts to the point where they join the "real world" and come to be valuable to - and valued by - the individuals comprising the learner group.
It has been recognized for decades that there are different styles of learning and that each individual possesses one or more styles. Some are auditory learners; others are more visually oriented. Some learn material better when they hear it said to them; others learn best when they are able to read the material for themselves. To be effective in any group setting, both styles need to be included, of course. Handouts and demonstrations combine to fill this requirement in the on-ground class setting; electronic simulation or videoconferencing's whiteboard applications can be used to substitute for on-ground demonstration.
Auditory learners typically are "left brain learners" while those benefiting most from the written word belong to the "right brain" group. Each of these groups have other characteristics in common as well. These include theories addressing behaviorist, cognitive, social, psychodynamic and humanistic learners (Bastable, 1997), any of which can belong to the left-brain or right-brain group.
The ASSURE model of instruction addresses all of the preceding points and provides a workable guide when either designing new course content or teaching existing classes (ASSURE model, 2003). ASSURE is an acronym for:
One aspect of the ASSURE model that the electronic lesson plan often does not fully address is that which requires learner participation. As designed, the lesson plan should provide opportunity for active learner participation, in both abstract (i.e., discussion) and concrete terms. While it provides opportunity without forcing any individual learner to actively participate, it also can contribute to some learners being left behind without active attention from the instructor.
Online Degree facts page 3
